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Einstein, a prominent physicist in the 20th century, proposed that relativistics are based on the principle of relativity. This theory holds that the rules of physics must be the same for all observers, regardless of the frame of reference that is used. The greatest difficulty for this idea was Maxwell’s equations. These included the speed of light in a vacuum, and imply that the speed of light is only constant relative to the postulated luminiferous ether.

Unfortunately for Einstein, all attempts to measure any speed relative to this ether failed. Special relativity is a formalization of the principle of relativity which does not contain a privileged inertial frame of reference such as the luminiferous ether or absolute space, from which Einstein inferred that no such frame exists.

Einstein generalized relativity to frames of reference that were non-inertial. He achieved this by positing the Equivalence Principle, which states that the force felt by an observer in a given gravitational field and that felt by an observer in an accelerating frame of reference are indistinguishable. This led to the conclusion that the mass of an object warps the geometry of the space-time surrounding it, as described in Einstein’s field equations.

An inertial frame of reference is one that is following a geodesic of space-time. An object that moves against a geodesic experiences a force. An object in free fall does not experience a force, because it is following a geodesic. An object standing on the earth, however, will experience a force, as it is being held against the geodesic by the surface of the planet. In light of this, the bucket of water rotating in empty space will experience a force because it rotates with respect to the geodesic. The water will become concave, not because it is rotating with respect to the distant stars, but because it is rotating with respect to the geodesic.

Einstein partially advocates Mach’s principle in that distant stars explain inertia because they provide the gravitational field against which acceleration and inertia occur. But contrary to Leibniz’ account, this warped space-time is as integral a part of an object as are its other defining characteristics such as volume and mass. If one holds, contrary to idealist beliefs, that objects exist independently of the mind, it seems that Relativistics commits them to also hold that space and temporality have the exact same type of independent existence.